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Measles: Symptoms, Transmission, Complications, Treatment and Prevention

Measles is a highly contagious viral infection that can affect both children and adults.

Although many people recover, measles should not be dismissed as simply a childhood rash. It can cause serious complications including pneumonia, severe diarrhoea, brain inflammation and, in some cases, death.

Measles is also one of the most contagious infectious diseases known.

The good news is that measles is largely preventable through vaccination.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), vaccination prevented an estimated 59 million measles deaths worldwide between 2000 and 2024.

However, measles continues to circulate in many parts of the world, particularly where vaccination coverage is insufficient.

What Causes Measles?

Measles is caused by the measles virus, which belongs to the Morbillivirus group.

The virus initially infects the respiratory tract and then spreads throughout the body.

Humans are the natural host of measles. The disease spreads from person to person.

Is Measles the Same as German Measles?

No.

Measles and rubella, sometimes called German measles, are different viral infections.

They can both cause a rash, but they are caused by different viruses and have different complications.

This distinction is especially important during pregnancy because rubella can cause severe congenital abnormalities in a developing baby.

The MMR vaccine protects against:

Measles,
Mumps,
and Rubella.

How Does Measles Spread?

Measles spreads very easily through the air.

An infected person can release the virus when they:

cough,
sneeze,
breathe,
or otherwise release respiratory particles.

Other people can become infected by breathing contaminated air.

The virus can also remain infectious in an airspace or on contaminated surfaces for up to about two hours after an infected person has left.

How Contagious Is Measles?

Extremely contagious.

WHO reports that approximately 90% of people who are not immune and come into close contact with someone who has measles may become infected.

That means a single case can spread rapidly through households, schools and communities where many people are unvaccinated or otherwise lack immunity.

When Is Someone With Measles Contagious?

A person with measles can spread the virus before the characteristic rash appears.

They are generally considered contagious from approximately:

4 days before the rash appears until 4 days after the rash appears.

This is important because someone may unknowingly spread measles before realizing that they have the disease.

How Long After Exposure Do Symptoms Begin?

Symptoms do not usually appear immediately.

According to current CDC guidance, the first symptoms commonly develop approximately 7–14 days after infection.

WHO describes initial symptoms as generally appearing around 10–14 days after exposure.

The timing can vary between individuals.

What Are the First Symptoms of Measles?

Measles commonly begins with symptoms resembling a severe respiratory infection.

Early symptoms can include:

high fever,
cough,
runny nose,
and red, watery eyes.

These symptoms usually appear before the characteristic rash.

What Are Koplik Spots?

Some people with measles develop tiny white spots inside the mouth known as Koplik spots.

They may appear approximately two to three days after the first symptoms begin.

Koplik spots can be an important clinical clue, but their absence does not necessarily exclude measles.

A healthcare professional should assess suspected cases.

What Does a Measles Rash Look Like?

The measles rash generally develops several days after the first symptoms.

It often begins as flat red spots around the face and hairline.

The rash then typically spreads downward to the:

neck,
trunk,
arms,
legs,
and feet.

Small raised bumps may sometimes appear over the flat red spots, and individual spots can merge together.

Fever can remain high when the rash develops.

Does Every Rash Mean Measles?

No.

Many conditions can cause a rash, including:

other viral infections,
allergic reactions,
medicine reactions,
chickenpox,
rubella,
and numerous skin conditions.

A rash should therefore not be diagnosed as measles based on appearance alone.

The person's symptoms, vaccination history, exposure history and appropriate laboratory testing may all be relevant.

Who Can Get Measles?

Anyone who does not have adequate immunity can potentially develop measles.

Although measles is commonly associated with childhood, adults can get measles too.

Adults who are not immune can also develop serious complications.

Who Is at Greater Risk of Serious Complications?

Measles can be serious at any age, but complications are more likely in certain groups.

These include:

babies and young children,
adults,
pregnant women,
people with weakened immune systems,
and people affected by undernutrition, particularly vitamin A deficiency.

The precise risk differs according to the person's age, immune status, nutritional status and access to medical care.

Is Vitamin A Deficiency a Cause of Measles?

No.

Vitamin A deficiency does not cause measles.

Measles is caused by infection with the measles virus.

However, vitamin A deficiency is associated with a greater risk of severe measles and complications, particularly among children in settings where deficiency and undernutrition are common.

This distinction is important.

What Complications Can Measles Cause?

Measles can cause complications ranging from relatively common problems to life-threatening illness.

Possible complications include:

ear infections,
diarrhoea,
dehydration,
pneumonia,
encephalitis,
vision problems or blindness in severe cases,
and death.

Pneumonia is an especially important cause of measles-related deaths in young children.

Measles and Pneumonia

Measles can cause serious respiratory complications.

Pneumonia may develop because of the measles virus itself or because another infection occurs while the person's immune defences are weakened.

Difficulty breathing, severe chest symptoms or a rapidly worsening condition requires urgent medical assessment.

Measles and Encephalitis

Encephalitis means inflammation of the brain.

It is an uncommon but potentially severe complication of measles.

It can cause symptoms such as:

seizures,
confusion,
loss of consciousness,
and neurological injury.

Some people who develop measles encephalitis can experience permanent disability.

Can Measles Cause Meningitis?

Neurological complications can occur with measles, including encephalitis and, less commonly, other inflammation involving the central nervous system.

However, the old article's simple statement that measles leads to “meningitis, appendicitis and lung infections” was not an appropriate description of the major complications.

Current international health guidance emphasizes complications such as pneumonia, encephalitis, severe diarrhoea, dehydration, ear infections and, in severe cases, blindness or death.

Is Appendicitis a Typical Measles Complication?

No.

Appendicitis should not be presented to readers as one of the standard major complications of measles.

It has therefore been removed from this updated article.

Can Measles Affect the Immune System?

Yes.

Measles can have effects on immune function that extend beyond the immediate illness.

Research has shown that measles can weaken previously developed immune protection against other infections, sometimes described as immune amnesia.

WHO notes that measles infection can make it more difficult for someone to fight other diseases for months or even years after the original measles illness.

This is another reason measles prevention is important.

What Is SSPE?

A rare but devastating long-term complication of measles is subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE).

SSPE is a progressive neurological disease that can occur years after the original measles infection.

It causes progressive brain damage and is usually fatal.

Although rare, SSPE demonstrates why preventing the original measles infection is preferable to relying on immunity acquired by becoming ill.

Measles During Pregnancy

Measles during pregnancy can be dangerous.

Pregnant women who develop measles may have an increased risk of serious illness.

Measles during pregnancy can also be associated with problems such as:

premature birth,
and low birth weight.

Anyone who is pregnant and thinks they have been exposed to measles should seek medical advice promptly.

Because MMR is a live vaccine, it is generally not administered during pregnancy. Vaccination status is ideally addressed before pregnancy or after delivery according to appropriate medical guidance.

Is There a Specific Medicine That Cures Measles?

There is no routine antiviral medicine that directly cures uncomplicated measles.

Treatment generally focuses on supportive care while the immune system fights the infection.

This can include:

adequate fluids,
nutrition,
management of fever and discomfort,
and treatment of complications.

People with severe disease may require hospital care.

Antibiotics do not treat the measles virus itself, although they may be prescribed when a bacterial complication such as certain ear infections or pneumonia develops.

What About Vitamin A Treatment?

Vitamin A has an important role in the management of measles in children in certain circumstances.

WHO recommends vitamin A supplementation for children with measles according to appropriate clinical guidance because it can reduce the risk of some complications and deaths, particularly where deficiency is present.

However:

Do not give high-dose vitamin A to a child without appropriate medical guidance.

Excessive vitamin A can be harmful.

Vitamin A is not a substitute for vaccination.

What Is the Best Way to Prevent Measles?

The most effective way to prevent measles is vaccination.

WHO recommends that susceptible children receive two doses of a measles-containing vaccine through national immunization programmes.

Depending on the country, this may be given as:

measles vaccine,
measles-rubella (MR),
measles-mumps-rubella (MMR),
or measles-mumps-rubella-varicella (MMRV).

Vaccination schedules differ between countries.

Follow the routine immunization schedule where you live.

How Effective Is the MMR Vaccine?

The measles-containing vaccine is highly effective.

CDC data indicate that:

one dose of MMR is about 93% effective at preventing measles,
while two doses are about 97% effective.

No vaccine provides 100% protection to every individual, but high vaccination coverage dramatically reduces measles transmission and outbreaks.

Is the Measles Vaccine Safe?

Measles-containing vaccines have been used worldwide for decades.

Most vaccine reactions are mild and temporary.

Possible reactions can include:

soreness at the injection site,
mild fever,
or a mild rash.

Serious vaccine reactions are rare.

The health risks associated with measles infection are substantially greater than the risk of serious reactions to the vaccine.

Does the MMR Vaccine Cause Autism?

No.

High-quality scientific research has found no causal relationship between MMR vaccination and autism.

The original claim suggesting such a link came from research that was subsequently discredited and retracted.

Vaccination remains the most effective way to prevent measles.

Can Vaccinated People Still Get Measles?

Rarely, yes.

No vaccine is completely effective in every individual.

However, two appropriately administered doses provide very strong protection.

When vaccinated people do develop measles, disease may sometimes be less severe.

Vaccination also reduces the number of susceptible people in the community, making outbreaks less likely.

Is Natural Measles Infection Better Than Vaccination?

No.

Recovering from measles generally produces strong immunity, but acquiring that immunity requires experiencing the actual disease and accepting its risks.

Those risks include:

pneumonia,
encephalitis,
hospitalization,
long-term neurological complications,
and death.

Vaccination provides protection without requiring someone to first experience those risks.

What Should You Do If You Think You Have Measles?

If you or your child has symptoms that could be measles, particularly after a known exposure or during an outbreak:

Contact a healthcare professional before arriving at a clinic or waiting room whenever possible.

Explain that you suspect measles.

This allows the healthcare facility to make arrangements that reduce the chance of exposing other patients.

Avoid unnecessary close contact with other people while waiting for medical advice.

What If You Have Been Exposed but Have No Symptoms?

Contact a healthcare professional or local public-health service promptly.

Depending on factors such as:

your vaccination history,
age,
immune status,
pregnancy,
and how recently the exposure occurred,

post-exposure measures may sometimes be recommended.

These can include a measles-containing vaccine for eligible people or immune globulin for certain high-risk individuals.

Timing matters, so seek advice promptly rather than waiting for symptoms.

Should Someone With Measles Go to School or Work?

No, not during the infectious period.

People with measles should follow isolation instructions from their healthcare or public-health authority.

As a general rule, a person with measles is considered infectious from approximately four days before until four days after the rash appears.

Specific instructions may differ for people with weakened immune systems or according to local public-health requirements.

Does Avoiding Shared Food Prevent Measles?

Not effectively by itself.

The old article advised readers not to share food and drinks with someone who has measles.

While normal hygiene is sensible, measles prevention cannot rely on avoiding shared food because the virus spreads very efficiently through the air.

Vaccination, appropriate isolation and rapid public-health response are far more important.

Does Good Nutrition Prevent Measles?

Good nutrition supports overall health and immune function, but a healthy diet does not make an unvaccinated susceptible person immune to measles.

The primary preventive measure is vaccination.

Nutrition becomes particularly important because undernourished children—including those deficient in vitamin A—can have a greater risk of severe disease.

Can Measles Be Eliminated?

Yes, measles can potentially be eliminated from countries and regions because:

humans are the only natural reservoir,
highly effective vaccines exist,
and there is no chronic carrier state maintaining transmission indefinitely.

However, elimination requires very high vaccination coverage.

Gaps in vaccination allow outbreaks to return.

WHO reported that by the end of 2025, approximately 84% of children worldwide had received a first measles-containing vaccine dose and 77% had received two doses.

Those global levels remain below what is needed to reliably prevent outbreaks everywhere.

Why Measles Vaccination Protects Communities

Measles spreads so easily that communities require very high levels of immunity to interrupt transmission.

High vaccination coverage protects vaccinated individuals and also reduces the likelihood that the virus reaches people who cannot receive certain vaccines for medical reasons.

This is why measles vaccination is both an individual and public-health measure.

When Should You Seek Urgent Medical Care?

Seek urgent medical assessment if someone with suspected or confirmed measles develops:

difficulty breathing,
severe dehydration,
extreme drowsiness or difficulty waking,
confusion,
seizures,
severe weakness,
bluish or unusually pale skin,
or a rapidly worsening condition.

Babies, pregnant women and people with weakened immune systems may require particularly careful assessment.

Contact your local emergency medical service if the situation appears life-threatening.

Seven Important Facts About Measles

1. Measles is caused by a virus.
Antibiotics do not cure the virus itself.

2. Measles spreads through the air.
It is one of the world's most contagious infections.

3. You can spread measles before the rash appears.
The infectious period generally begins about four days before the rash.

4. Measles is not simply a harmless childhood rash.
Pneumonia, encephalitis and other serious complications can occur.

5. Adults can get measles too.
Anyone without adequate immunity can be infected.

6. Two vaccine doses provide strong protection.

7. Suspected measles should be reported before walking into a healthcare facility.
Calling ahead helps protect other patients from exposure.

The Bottom Line

Measles is an extremely contagious viral infection that can affect children and adults.

Typical symptoms include high fever, cough, runny nose, red watery eyes and a rash that usually begins on the face before spreading downward.

Tiny white Koplik spots may also appear inside the mouth.

Although many people recover, measles can cause serious complications including pneumonia, severe diarrhoea and dehydration, encephalitis, blindness and, in rare cases, long-term neurological disease or death.

The most effective protection is vaccination.

Two doses of a measles-containing vaccine provide strong protection and are recommended through national immunization programmes around the world.

If you think you or your child has measles, contact a healthcare professional promptly and call before attending a clinic or hospital whenever possible, so measures can be taken to avoid exposing other people.

Measles is preventable. Maintaining high vaccination coverage remains one of the most effective ways to protect individuals, families and communities.

Medical Disclaimer

This article provides general health information for an international audience and is not a substitute for diagnosis, vaccination advice or treatment from an appropriately qualified healthcare professional. Vaccination schedules and outbreak-control procedures differ between countries. If you think you or your child has been exposed to measles or has symptoms of measles, contact an appropriate healthcare professional or public-health service promptly. Seek urgent medical care for serious symptoms such as breathing difficulty, seizures, confusion, severe dehydration or rapidly worsening illness.

Sources and Further Reading

World Health Organization — Measles

https://www.who.int/health-topics/measles

World Health Organization — What You Need to Know About Measles

https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/what-you-need-to-know-about-measles

World Health Organization — Immunization Coverage

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/immunization-coverage

World Health Organization — Measles Vaccines

https://www.who.int/teams/immunization-vaccines-and-biologicals/diseases/measles

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention — About Measles

https://www.cdc.gov/measles/about/

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention — Measles Symptoms and Complications

https://www.cdc.gov/measles/signs-symptoms/index.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention — How Measles Spreads

https://www.cdc.gov/measles/causes/index.html

Tuberculosis (TB): Symptoms, Transmission, Testing, Treatment and Prevention

Tuberculosis, commonly called TB, is a serious infectious disease caused mainly by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

TB most commonly affects the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body, including the lymph nodes, kidneys, spine and brain.

Tuberculosis remains a major global health problem, but there is an important message to remember:

TB is preventable and curable.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), an estimated 10.7 million people developed tuberculosis worldwide in 2024, including 5.8 million men, 3.7 million women and 1.2 million children.

Approximately 1.23 million people died from TB in 2024, including about 150,000 people living with HIV.

Early diagnosis, appropriate treatment and prevention can save lives and reduce transmission.

What Causes Tuberculosis?

Tuberculosis is caused by bacteria belonging to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex.

The bacteria most commonly infect the lungs.

When someone inhales infectious TB bacteria, the germs may reach the lungs.

From there, they may remain controlled by the immune system or, in some circumstances, multiply and cause active TB disease.

TB bacteria can also spread within the body and affect organs outside the lungs.

TB Infection and TB Disease Are Not the Same Thing

Understanding this distinction is extremely important.

Someone can have TB bacteria in their body without having active tuberculosis disease.

This is often called TB infection, latent TB infection or inactive TB.

Another person may have active TB disease.

The two conditions are different.

What Is Inactive or Latent TB Infection?

A person with inactive TB infection has TB bacteria in the body, but the bacteria are controlled and are not causing active disease.

People with inactive TB generally:

do not feel ill because of TB,
have no symptoms of active TB disease,
and cannot spread TB bacteria to other people.

However, inactive TB can later develop into active TB disease.

WHO estimates that approximately 5–10% of people infected with TB bacteria will eventually develop TB disease, although the risk is substantially higher in certain groups.

Preventive treatment can reduce the risk of inactive TB progressing to active disease.

What Is Active TB Disease?

Active TB disease occurs when TB bacteria multiply and cause illness.

A person may develop symptoms and require treatment with several antibiotics.

When active TB affects the lungs or throat, the person may be able to transmit TB bacteria to others through the air.

Active TB affecting only another part of the body is generally much less likely to be infectious through normal respiratory transmission.

Without appropriate treatment, active TB can cause serious illness and can be fatal.

How Does Tuberculosis Spread?

Tuberculosis spreads through the air.

A person with infectious TB disease involving the lungs or throat can release TB bacteria into the air when they:

cough,
speak,
sing,
sneeze,
or otherwise expel infectious respiratory particles.

Another person nearby may inhale these airborne bacteria and become infected.

The risk is generally greater when people spend prolonged or repeated periods together in enclosed or poorly ventilated spaces.

TB Is Not Usually Spread Through Surfaces

Tuberculosis should not be confused with infections that spread primarily through contaminated objects.

TB is not normally transmitted by touching surfaces or everyday objects.

It is also not generally spread by:

shaking someone's hand,
sharing plates or cutlery,
touching toilet seats,
sharing food,
or casual physical contact.

The main concern is breathing air containing infectious TB bacteria.

Does Sharing Needles Spread TB?

The original version of this KandyWandy article listed sharing or injecting illicit drugs as a method of TB transmission.

That needs correcting.

Sharing needles is not the usual mechanism by which tuberculosis itself spreads.

TB spreads primarily through the air.

However, substance use can be associated with circumstances that increase someone's vulnerability to TB, and sharing injection equipment can transmit other serious infections such as HIV and viral hepatitis.

Because HIV substantially increases the risk of developing active TB, these health issues can sometimes be connected—but they are not the same transmission route.

Can You Catch TB From Someone With Latent TB?

No.

People with inactive or latent TB infection cannot spread TB bacteria to other people.

Transmission occurs primarily from people who have infectious active TB disease involving the lungs or throat.

This distinction helps prevent unnecessary fear and stigma towards people who have tested positive for TB infection but do not have active disease.

Who Is More Likely to Be Exposed to TB?

Anyone can become infected with TB, but exposure risk is not equal everywhere.

Risk can be higher among people who:

live with or spend considerable time around someone with infectious TB,
live or work in settings where TB transmission is more common,
spend prolonged periods in crowded or poorly ventilated environments where infectious TB is present,
live in or frequently travel to countries where TB is more common,
work in healthcare or other settings where TB exposure can occur,
or live in congregate settings where transmission risk is increased.

Exposure does not automatically mean that someone will develop active TB disease.

Who Is More Likely to Develop Active TB After Infection?

Some people are more likely than others to progress from TB infection to active TB disease.

Important risk factors include:

HIV infection,
diabetes,
undernutrition,
tobacco use,
harmful alcohol use,
certain cancers,
medicines that suppress the immune system,
and other conditions that weaken immune defences.

Babies and young children who become infected also have an increased risk of developing TB disease.

TB and HIV

TB and HIV have an especially important relationship.

HIV weakens the immune system, making it more difficult for the body to keep TB bacteria under control.

As a result, people living with HIV who become infected with TB have a substantially increased risk of developing active TB disease.

WHO reports that TB remained the leading killer of people with HIV in 2024.

Testing, prevention and treatment for both conditions are therefore important.

TB and Diabetes

Diabetes is another important risk factor for developing active TB.

People with diabetes who have been exposed to TB or who live in areas where TB is common may need assessment based on local medical guidance and individual risk.

Good management of diabetes remains important for overall health.

TB and Undernutrition

Undernutrition can weaken the body's ability to fight infection and is associated with an increased risk of TB disease.

People undergoing TB treatment may also experience weight loss and poor appetite.

Nutritional assessment and support can therefore form part of comprehensive TB care where needed.

However, no particular food or supplement can cure tuberculosis.

Antibiotic treatment is essential for active TB disease.

Smoking and Tuberculosis

Tobacco use increases the risk of TB disease and can damage the lungs.

Avoiding or stopping tobacco use therefore supports respiratory health and reduces several major health risks.

Stopping smoking should complement—not replace—appropriate TB testing and treatment.

Alcohol and TB

Harmful alcohol use is associated with increased risk of TB disease.

Heavy alcohol use can also affect nutrition, immune function and a person's ability to complete a long course of treatment.

Reducing harmful alcohol consumption is therefore relevant to TB prevention and overall health.

What Are the Symptoms of Pulmonary TB?

TB symptoms depend on which part of the body is affected.

When TB affects the lungs, possible symptoms include:

a persistent or prolonged cough,
coughing up sputum or phlegm,
coughing up blood,
chest pain,
fever,
night sweats,
unexplained weight loss,
loss of appetite,
weakness,
and fatigue.

Symptoms can initially be mild.

This is one reason people may have TB for weeks or months before seeking medical attention.

How Long Can a TB Cough Last?

A persistent cough is one of the most recognizable symptoms of pulmonary TB.

Some clinical guidance describes a cough lasting three weeks or longer as a warning sign.

However, people should not wait for an exact number of weeks if they have other concerning symptoms, known TB exposure or significant risk factors.

A prolonged or unexplained cough deserves appropriate medical assessment.

Is Back Pain a Typical TB Symptom?

The old article listed back pain as a general symptom of tuberculosis.

That needs clarification.

Back pain is not one of the main symptoms of ordinary pulmonary TB.

However, tuberculosis can sometimes affect the spine.

Spinal TB can cause back pain and other symptoms related to the affected bones and nerves.

Similarly, TB affecting the brain, kidneys, lymph nodes or other organs can cause symptoms specific to those areas.

What Is Extrapulmonary TB?

Tuberculosis occurring outside the lungs is called extrapulmonary TB.

It can affect areas such as:

lymph nodes,
kidneys,
bones and joints,
spine,
brain and surrounding membranes,
abdomen,
and other organs.

Symptoms depend on the affected site.

For example:

TB of the lymph nodes may cause persistent swelling.

TB of the spine may cause back pain.

TB involving the brain or its coverings can cause severe neurological illness.

Kidney TB may cause urinary symptoms or blood in the urine.

Extrapulmonary TB requires proper medical diagnosis and treatment.

Can Someone Have Active TB Without Obvious Symptoms?

Yes.

Although active TB commonly causes symptoms, WHO notes that some people with TB disease may have few or no obvious symptoms.

This reinforces the importance of screening and testing among people at increased risk or those who have had significant exposure.

How Is Tuberculosis Diagnosed?

Symptoms alone cannot confirm TB.

Healthcare professionals may use several approaches depending on whether they are investigating TB infection or active TB disease.

Tests can include:

rapid molecular tests,
examination of sputum,
chest imaging,
TB blood tests,
TB skin tests,
and tests on samples from affected tissues or body fluids.

WHO recommends rapid diagnostic tests as the initial tests for people with signs and symptoms of TB where appropriate.

What Is a Sputum Test?

Sputum is mucus or phlegm produced from deep within the lungs.

Someone suspected of having pulmonary TB may be asked to provide a sputum sample.

Laboratory testing can look for evidence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and may help determine whether the bacteria are resistant to important TB medicines.

Rapid molecular testing has improved the speed with which TB and some forms of drug resistance can be detected.

What Are TB Blood and Skin Tests?

Tests such as a tuberculin skin test (TST) or an interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA) can help determine whether someone has been infected with TB bacteria.

A positive infection test does not by itself prove that someone has active TB disease.

Further assessment may be necessary to distinguish inactive infection from active disease.

How Is Tuberculosis Treated?

Tuberculosis is treated with antibiotics.

For drug-susceptible TB, treatment commonly involves combinations of medicines such as:

rifampicin,
isoniazid,
pyrazinamide,
and ethambutol.

Treatment regimens depend on the type of TB, drug susceptibility, age, pregnancy, other medical conditions and national or international guidelines.

WHO states that TB medicines generally need to be taken for 4–6 months for common drug-susceptible disease, although particular regimens may differ.

Why Are Several Antibiotics Used?

TB bacteria can develop resistance to antibiotics.

Using an appropriate combination of medicines helps:

kill TB bacteria effectively,
reduce treatment failure,
and reduce the chance that drug-resistant bacteria will emerge.

Patients should follow their prescribed regimen carefully.

Do Not Stop TB Treatment Early

This is one of the most important messages in tuberculosis care.

Someone may begin feeling better after treatment starts, but that does not mean all TB bacteria have been eliminated.

Do not stop TB medication early unless the healthcare team managing your treatment tells you to do so.

Stopping treatment prematurely or taking medicines inconsistently can contribute to:

treatment failure,
recurrence,
continued transmission,
and drug-resistant TB.

Complete the prescribed treatment.

What Is Drug-Resistant TB?

Drug-resistant tuberculosis occurs when TB bacteria no longer respond adequately to one or more important medicines.

Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) is particularly concerning because the bacteria are resistant to key first-line medicines.

Drug-resistant TB requires specialized treatment.

WHO describes MDR-TB as an ongoing global public-health and health-security threat.

Preventing resistance is one reason correct diagnosis and completion of treatment are so important.

Can Latent TB Be Treated?

Yes.

People with inactive TB infection who have a significant risk of developing active disease may be offered TB preventive treatment.

The purpose is to kill or suppress TB bacteria before they cause active disease.

Not everyone with a positive TB test receives exactly the same regimen.

The decision depends on factors such as:

age,
risk of developing active disease,
previous exposure,
medical history,
possible drug resistance,
and local clinical guidelines.

What Is the BCG Vaccine?

BCG, or Bacille Calmette-Guérin, is the currently available vaccine against tuberculosis.

It is used in many countries, particularly where TB is more common.

WHO notes that BCG vaccination can protect babies and young children against severe forms of tuberculosis and TB-related death.

However, BCG does not provide complete lifelong protection against pulmonary TB.

This means someone who received BCG can still become infected with TB and may still need testing following significant exposure.

Is BCG Given to Everyone Worldwide?

No.

BCG vaccination policies differ between countries because TB prevalence and individual risk differ.

Some countries routinely vaccinate infants.

Others use targeted vaccination for babies, children or other people considered at increased risk.

Follow the vaccination programme applicable where you live.

How Can TB Transmission Be Reduced?

Important prevention measures include:

diagnosing infectious TB promptly,
starting effective treatment,
completing treatment,
testing people who have had significant exposure,
treating inactive TB when appropriate,
improving ventilation,
avoiding prolonged exposure to untreated infectious TB in enclosed spaces,
using appropriate respiratory protection in healthcare and high-risk settings,
covering coughs appropriately,
and following public-health advice.

Why Does Ventilation Matter?

TB bacteria can remain suspended in indoor air.

The risk of transmission is therefore greater in enclosed spaces with poor air circulation.

Improving ventilation can dilute infectious particles and reduce the chance that other people will inhale them.

Healthcare and institutional settings may require additional infection-control measures.

What About Face Masks?

Masks and respirators can play a role in TB infection control, but the correct type and use depend on the situation.

A person with infectious pulmonary TB may be advised to wear an appropriate mask to reduce the release of infectious particles.

Healthcare workers and others at occupational risk may require properly fitted respirators according to infection-control procedures.

A simple instruction to “wear a face mask whenever entering a TB institution” is therefore not sufficiently precise.

Follow the infection-control guidance of the relevant healthcare or public-health authority.

Should Someone With TB Be Avoided Completely?

No.

People affected by TB should be treated with dignity and without stigma.

Someone with inactive TB cannot transmit TB.

Someone receiving treatment for active pulmonary TB may become much less infectious after effective treatment, but the exact timing varies.

The healthcare team determines when isolation or other transmission precautions can safely end.

Do not socially exclude someone indefinitely simply because they have had tuberculosis.

When Should You Get Tested for TB?

Consider medical assessment or TB testing if:

you have had close contact with someone with infectious active TB,
you have a persistent unexplained cough,
you are coughing up blood,
you have unexplained fever, night sweats or weight loss,
you have HIV or another condition that substantially weakens immunity,
you have been advised to test because of occupational exposure,
or you belong to another group considered at increased risk under local health guidance.

Testing recommendations vary between countries.

When Should You Seek Medical Attention?

Seek medical assessment if you develop symptoms that could indicate tuberculosis, particularly a persistent cough combined with:

fever,
night sweats,
unexplained weight loss,
chest pain,
fatigue,
or known exposure to someone with infectious TB.

Coughing up blood requires prompt medical assessment.

Seek urgent medical care if coughing up blood is heavy, you have severe breathing difficulty, severe chest pain, confusion, loss of consciousness or another serious deterioration.

Contact your local emergency medical service if necessary.

TB Is Curable

A diagnosis of tuberculosis can be frightening, but modern treatment can cure TB in most people when appropriate medicines are available and taken correctly.

The priorities are:

Get tested.
Start the correct treatment.
Take every medicine as prescribed.
Complete the full treatment course.
Follow infection-control advice.
Attend follow-up appointments.

Treatment protects both the individual and the wider community.

Seven Important TB Facts

1. TB is caused by bacteria.
The main cause is Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

2. TB spreads through the air.
It is not primarily spread by surfaces, handshakes or shared food.

3. Inactive TB is not contagious.
People with latent TB infection cannot spread TB to others.

4. TB most commonly affects the lungs but can affect other organs.

5. A persistent cough, fever, night sweats and unexplained weight loss are important warning symptoms.

6. TB is preventable and curable.

7. Treatment must be completed.
Stopping antibiotics too early can contribute to treatment failure and drug resistance.

The Bottom Line

Tuberculosis remains one of the world's most serious infectious diseases, but it is both preventable and curable.

TB spreads primarily through the air when someone with infectious disease of the lungs or throat releases TB bacteria.

Not everyone infected with TB becomes ill.

People with inactive TB infection usually have no symptoms and cannot transmit the bacteria, but some will later develop active TB disease.

People with HIV, diabetes, undernutrition, weakened immune systems, tobacco use and harmful alcohol use can face increased risk of developing TB disease.

Persistent cough, chest pain, fever, night sweats, fatigue and unexplained weight loss deserve medical attention, particularly when there has been possible TB exposure.

Testing can distinguish TB infection from active disease and help identify drug resistance.

Effective antibiotics can cure TB, but treatment must be taken correctly and completed.

Early diagnosis and treatment do more than protect one patient—they also help prevent tuberculosis from spreading to other people.

Medical Disclaimer

This article provides general health information for an international audience and is not a substitute for professional medical diagnosis, TB testing or treatment. Tuberculosis testing, vaccination policies and treatment regimens vary according to individual circumstances, drug resistance and national guidelines. If you think you have been exposed to tuberculosis or have symptoms such as a persistent cough, coughing up blood, fever, night sweats or unexplained weight loss, seek assessment from an appropriately qualified healthcare professional.

Sources and Further Reading

World Health Organization — Tuberculosis Fact Sheet

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tuberculosis

World Health Organization — Tuberculosis Health Topic

https://www.who.int/health-topics/tuberculosis

World Health Organization — Tuberculosis Questions and Answers

https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/tuberculosis

World Health Organization — TB Vaccines

https://www.who.int/teams/immunization-vaccines-and-biologicals/tuberculosis

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention — About Tuberculosis

https://www.cdc.gov/tb/about/index.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention — How Tuberculosis Spreads

https://www.cdc.gov/tb/causes/index.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention — Signs and Symptoms of Tuberculosis

https://www.cdc.gov/tb/signs-symptoms/index.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention — Preventing Tuberculosis

https://www.cdc.gov/tb/prevention/index.html

Jaundice: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment and When to Seek Medical Help

Jaundice is the yellowing of the skin, the whites of the eyes and sometimes other tissues because too much of a substance called bilirubin has accumulated in the body.

It can occur in newborn babies, children and adults.

Jaundice is not a disease by itself. Instead, it is a visible sign that something is affecting the production, processing or removal of bilirubin.

Some causes are relatively harmless, while others require urgent medical treatment.

For that reason, new or unexplained jaundice should not simply be treated at home without determining its cause.

What Is Bilirubin?

Your body continuously replaces old red blood cells.

When red blood cells are broken down, haemoglobin is processed and bilirubin is produced.

The liver plays a major role in processing bilirubin.

After bilirubin has been processed by the liver, it passes into bile and eventually leaves the body, mainly through the digestive system.

If too much bilirubin is produced, the liver cannot process it normally, or bile cannot flow properly, bilirubin can accumulate in the blood.

As levels rise, the skin and whites of the eyes may become yellow.

What Does Jaundice Look Like?

The most recognisable sign is a yellow colour in the whites of the eyes or skin.

Jaundice can be more difficult to recognise from skin colour alone in people with darker skin tones.

Looking at the whites of the eyes may make the yellow colour easier to notice.

However, visual appearance alone cannot determine the bilirubin level or identify the cause.

Medical testing may be necessary.

Is Jaundice the Same as Liver Disease?

No.

Jaundice can be a sign of liver disease, but not everyone with jaundice has the same liver problem.

Bilirubin can build up for several different reasons.

A useful way to understand the causes is to consider three broad situations:

too much bilirubin is being produced,
the liver is having difficulty processing or removing bilirubin, or
bile flow from the liver is blocked or impaired.

The actual cause needs to be identified before appropriate treatment can be selected.

What Causes Jaundice in Adults?

Many conditions can cause jaundice.

Viral Hepatitis

Hepatitis means inflammation of the liver.

Several viruses can cause hepatitis, including hepatitis A, B, C, D and E.

Some forms cause short-term illness, while hepatitis B and C can become chronic and eventually cause serious liver damage.

Jaundice can occur during viral hepatitis, although not everyone with hepatitis develops noticeable jaundice.

Alcohol-Related Liver Disease

Heavy alcohol consumption over time can damage the liver.

Advanced liver injury may interfere with the liver's ability to process bilirubin and can result in jaundice.

Not everyone who drinks alcohol develops liver disease, but long-term excessive consumption increases the risk.

Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease

Fat can accumulate in the liver and, in some people, cause inflammation and progressive liver damage.

This condition is associated with metabolic risk factors such as obesity and type 2 diabetes.

Advanced liver disease may eventually cause jaundice.

Cirrhosis

Cirrhosis occurs when long-term liver damage causes extensive scarring.

Possible causes include chronic hepatitis B or C, alcohol-related liver disease and metabolic liver disease.

As cirrhosis progresses, jaundice can develop because the damaged liver can no longer perform its normal functions effectively.

Gallstones

Gallstones can sometimes block the tubes that carry bile from the liver and gallbladder into the intestine.

A blockage can cause bilirubin to accumulate.

Depending on the circumstances, someone may also experience significant abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting or fever.

Pancreatic or Bile-Duct Problems

Diseases affecting the pancreas or bile ducts can obstruct bile flow.

These include inflammation, narrowing of the bile ducts and, less commonly, cancer.

Jaundice accompanied by unexplained weight loss or persistent abdominal symptoms should be medically investigated.

Blood Disorders

Conditions that cause red blood cells to break down unusually quickly can produce more bilirubin than the liver can process efficiently.

This is called haemolysis.

Certain inherited and acquired blood disorders can cause haemolysis.

Certain Medicines and Toxins

Some medicines, herbal products, supplements and toxins can injure the liver or interfere with bilirubin processing.

This does not mean you should stop prescribed medicine simply because jaundice is listed as a possible side effect.

If jaundice develops while taking medication, seek medical advice promptly and tell the healthcare professional about all medicines, supplements and herbal products you use.

Inherited Conditions

Some inherited conditions affect the way bilirubin is processed.

One example is Gilbert syndrome, which can cause mild episodes of increased bilirubin.

People with Gilbert syndrome generally do not develop serious liver damage from the condition itself.

Other inherited bilirubin disorders are much rarer.

Can Malaria Cause Jaundice?

Yes, severe malaria can sometimes cause jaundice.

Malaria can damage red blood cells and, in severe disease, affect organs including the liver.

However, jaundice does not automatically mean someone has malaria.

Where malaria is present, diagnosis should be based on appropriate medical assessment and testing rather than symptoms alone.

What Symptoms Can Occur With Jaundice?

Jaundice itself causes yellow discolouration, but additional symptoms depend on the underlying condition.

These may include:

yellow skin,
yellowing of the whites of the eyes,
dark urine,
unusually pale or clay-coloured stools,
itchy skin,
tiredness,
nausea or vomiting,
loss of appetite,
abdominal pain,
fever,
and unexplained weight loss.

The combination of symptoms can provide clues, but laboratory tests and sometimes imaging are required to determine the cause.

Why Can Urine Become Dark?

Certain forms of bilirubin can enter the urine when bilirubin levels rise.

This can make urine appear darker than usual.

Dark urine can have many other causes, including dehydration, medicines, foods and blood in the urine.

Dark urine combined with yellow eyes or skin should therefore be medically assessed.

Why Can Stools Become Pale?

Bile contributes to the normal brown colour of stool.

If bile cannot reach the intestine normally because of an obstruction or another problem, stools may become unusually pale, grey or clay-coloured.

Pale stools together with jaundice can be an important sign of impaired bile flow and should not be ignored.

How Is Jaundice Diagnosed?

A healthcare professional will usually begin by asking about:

when the yellowing started,
other symptoms,
alcohol consumption,
medicines,
supplements and herbal products,
previous liver problems,
possible hepatitis exposure,
recent travel,
and relevant family or medical history.

A physical examination may also be performed.

Blood Tests

Blood tests are commonly used to investigate jaundice.

These may include:

total and direct bilirubin,
liver enzymes,
blood-cell measurements,
tests of liver function,
and tests for hepatitis or other conditions when appropriate.

The pattern of the test results can help determine whether the problem involves the liver, increased red-blood-cell breakdown or obstruction of bile flow.

Imaging Tests

Depending on the suspected cause, imaging may be recommended.

This can include:

ultrasound,
CT scanning,
MRI,
or specialised imaging of the bile ducts.

An ultrasound is often useful when gallstones or bile-duct obstruction is suspected.

Not everyone with jaundice needs every type of scan.

Is There a Treatment for Jaundice?

There is no single treatment that simply “cures jaundice.”

Treatment depends on why bilirubin has accumulated.

For example:

a bile-duct blockage may need to be relieved,
some infections require specific treatment,
chronic hepatitis may require antiviral treatment,
medication-related liver injury may require changes directed by a healthcare professional,
certain blood disorders require their own treatment,
and serious liver disease may need specialist management.

The goal is to treat the underlying condition rather than merely trying to remove the yellow colour.

Can Diet Cure Jaundice?

No particular food or “liver cleanse” has been proven to cure all causes of jaundice.

A nutritious diet can support general health, but it cannot remove a gallstone blocking a bile duct, cure hepatitis C by itself or reverse every form of serious liver disease.

Be particularly cautious of products advertised online as:

liver detoxes,
jaundice cleanses,
herbal liver cures,
bilirubin flushes,
or guaranteed hepatitis treatments.

Some herbal products and supplements can themselves cause liver injury.

Can Jaundice Be Prevented?

Because jaundice has many causes, there is no single method that prevents every case.

However, some underlying conditions can be prevented or their risks reduced.

Vaccination Against Hepatitis

Vaccination is an important way to prevent certain viral hepatitis infections.

Safe and effective vaccines are available against hepatitis A and hepatitis B.

Hepatitis B vaccination is particularly important globally because chronic hepatitis B can eventually cause cirrhosis and liver cancer.

There is currently no effective vaccine against hepatitis C.

Fortunately, modern antiviral medicines can cure more than 95% of people with hepatitis C infection.

Vaccine recommendations differ between countries, ages and risk groups, so follow the immunisation guidance where you live.

Reduce Viral Hepatitis Risk

Depending on the particular hepatitis virus, prevention measures can include:

vaccination where available,
safe food and drinking water,
good hand hygiene,
avoiding sharing needles,
safe medical injections,
properly sterilised tattooing and piercing equipment,
screened blood supplies,
and safer sexual practices.

Different hepatitis viruses spread in different ways, so prevention is not identical for every type.

Protect Your Liver From Alcohol-Related Harm

Avoiding or limiting alcohol can reduce the risk of alcohol-related liver disease.

Someone who drinks heavily every day and may be physically dependent on alcohol should seek professional advice before suddenly stopping, because alcohol withdrawal can sometimes be dangerous.

Be Careful With Medicines and Supplements

Take medicines according to instructions.

Do not exceed recommended doses.

Do not combine medicines without checking whether it is safe.

And tell your healthcare professional about supplements and herbal products you use.

“Natural” does not automatically mean harmless to the liver.

Maintain Overall Metabolic Health

Regular physical activity, nutritious eating and appropriate weight management can help reduce the risk of metabolic conditions associated with fatty liver disease.

These habits support general liver health, but they cannot guarantee that jaundice will never occur.

Jaundice in Newborn Babies Is Different

Jaundice is very common during the first days after birth.

Newborn babies naturally break down red blood cells, and their developing liver may initially be less efficient at processing bilirubin.

Many newborns therefore develop mild jaundice that resolves.

However, newborn jaundice should still be monitored carefully because very high bilirubin levels can be dangerous.

Why High Bilirubin Can Be Dangerous for Babies

If a newborn's bilirubin becomes extremely high, bilirubin can affect the brain.

Severe untreated hyperbilirubinaemia can cause a rare but serious form of brain injury known as kernicterus.

This is why significant newborn jaundice should never be dismissed simply because jaundice is common in babies.

When Does a Jaundiced Baby Need Urgent Assessment?

Seek prompt medical care for a newborn if:

jaundice appears during the first 24 hours after birth,
the yellow colour is becoming rapidly more intense,
the palms or soles appear yellow,
the baby is difficult to wake,
the baby is feeding poorly,
the baby has abnormal movements or seizures,
the baby has breathing difficulties,
the baby has fever or seems seriously unwell,
or you are otherwise concerned.

Healthcare professionals may measure bilirubin through the skin or with a blood test.

Treatment depends on the bilirubin level, baby's age, gestational age and other risk factors.

How Is Newborn Jaundice Treated?

Many babies with mild jaundice require monitoring rather than treatment.

When bilirubin becomes high enough to require treatment, phototherapy may be used.

Phototherapy uses special light to help the baby's body eliminate bilirubin.

More severe cases may require additional hospital treatment.

Do not try to treat significant newborn jaundice by simply putting a baby in direct sunlight.

Professional assessment is important because visual inspection alone cannot reliably determine the bilirubin level.

When Should an Adult With Jaundice Seek Medical Care?

New unexplained jaundice in an adult should be medically assessed promptly.

Do not wait several weeks to see whether yellow eyes disappear on their own.

Seek medical attention particularly if jaundice occurs with:

abdominal pain,
fever,
persistent vomiting,
confusion,
unusual sleepiness,
bleeding,
very pale stools,
dark urine,
unexplained weight loss,
severe weakness,
or rapidly worsening illness.

When Is Jaundice an Emergency?

Seek urgent medical attention or contact the emergency medical service where you live if someone with jaundice:

becomes confused or difficult to wake,
loses consciousness,
has severe abdominal pain with fever,
has significant bleeding or vomits blood,
has severe breathing difficulty,
develops seizures,
or appears critically ill.

These symptoms can indicate a serious underlying illness and should not be managed using home remedies.

Jaundice and Liver Failure

Jaundice does not automatically mean that the liver is failing.

However, severe liver failure can cause jaundice together with other dangerous symptoms.

These can include confusion, abnormal bleeding, swelling, severe weakness and deterioration in consciousness.

Acute liver failure is a medical emergency.

This is another reason sudden jaundice combined with serious symptoms requires urgent evaluation.

What About Children Who Are No Longer Newborns?

Jaundice in an older baby or child should not automatically be assumed to be normal newborn jaundice.

Possible causes differ by age and circumstances.

A child who develops yellow skin or yellow eyes should be medically assessed so the underlying cause can be identified.

Five Important Things to Remember About Jaundice

1. Jaundice is a sign, not one disease.
Many different conditions can cause bilirubin to accumulate.

2. Yellow eyes matter.
New unexplained yellowing of the whites of the eyes deserves medical attention.

3. Don't diagnose the cause yourself.
Jaundice can result from liver disease, blood disorders, bile obstruction, infections and other conditions.

4. Babies require special attention.
Newborn jaundice is common, but very high bilirubin can be dangerous.

5. Treat the cause—not just the colour.
There is no universal food, supplement or detox remedy for jaundice.

The Bottom Line

Jaundice occurs when bilirubin accumulates and causes yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes.

It is a sign of an underlying process rather than a disease itself.

In adults, possible causes include viral hepatitis, liver disease, gallstones, bile-duct obstruction, blood disorders, certain medicines and other medical conditions.

In newborns, jaundice is common, but high bilirubin levels can occasionally cause serious complications and therefore need appropriate monitoring.

Treatment depends entirely on the cause.

There is no single diet, herbal remedy or “detox” that safely treats every form of jaundice.

If you or your child develops unexplained jaundice, seek appropriate medical assessment rather than trying to determine the cause from skin colour alone.

Medical Disclaimer

This article provides general health information for an international audience and is not a substitute for medical diagnosis or treatment. Jaundice has many possible causes, some of which can be serious. New or unexplained jaundice should be assessed by an appropriate healthcare professional. For severe or rapidly worsening symptoms, seek urgent medical care or contact the emergency medical service where you live.

Sources and Further Reading

World Health Organization — Hepatitis A

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-a

World Health Organization — Hepatitis B

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-b

World Health Organization — Hepatitis C

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-c

World Health Organization — Caring for a Newborn

https://www.who.int/tools/your-life-your-health/life-phase/newborns-and-children-under-5-years/caring-for-newborns

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases — Liver Disease

https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/liver-disease

Sore Throat: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment and When to Seek Help

A sore throat is extremely common and usually gets better without medical treatment.

It may feel scratchy, dry, irritated or painful, particularly when swallowing. Some people also develop swollen glands in the neck, a mild cough or redness at the back of the mouth.

Most acute sore throats improve within about one week, although the exact duration varies. nhs.uk

Viruses are responsible for many cases, which is one reason antibiotics are not routinely needed.

Understanding what can cause a sore throat, how to manage symptoms safely and when to seek medical help can help you avoid unnecessary treatments while recognising potentially serious symptoms.

What Is a Sore Throat?

A sore throat describes pain, irritation or discomfort in the throat.

It is a symptom rather than one single disease.

You may notice:

pain when swallowing,
a dry or scratchy sensation,
redness at the back of the mouth,
swollen glands in the neck,
bad breath,
a mild cough, or
fever in some cases.

Children can experience similar symptoms and may also appear less active when unwell. nhs.uk

What Causes a Sore Throat?

There are several possible causes.

1. Viral infections

Viruses are among the most common causes.

A sore throat can occur alongside respiratory infections such as a cold or flu.

NICE states that acute sore throat, including pharyngitis and tonsillitis, is often triggered by a viral upper respiratory tract infection. Nice

This matters because antibiotics do not treat viral infections.

2. Tonsillitis

Tonsillitis is inflammation of the tonsils and can cause a sore throat.

It may also cause:

difficulty swallowing,
swollen tonsils,
fever,
swollen neck glands, or
white patches or pus on the tonsils.

Tonsillitis may be caused by viral or bacterial infections.

3. Strep throat

Strep throat is a bacterial throat infection caused by group A streptococcal bacteria.

A healthcare professional may use symptoms and clinical assessment to determine how likely a bacterial infection is.

NICE recommends clinical scoring systems such as FeverPAIN or Centor to help identify people who may be more likely to benefit from antibiotics. Nice

You should not try to diagnose bacterial strep throat based only on how your throat looks.

4. Glandular fever

Glandular fever can also cause a severe sore throat.

Other symptoms can include swollen glands, fever and significant tiredness.

It is particularly common among teenagers and young adults, although people of other ages can be affected.

5. Smoking and smoke exposure

Smoking can irritate the throat.

The NHS specifically advises people with a sore throat to avoid smoking and smoky environments. nhs.uk

Reducing exposure to tobacco smoke is beneficial for many other aspects of health as well.

Does Cold Weather Cause a Sore Throat?

The original KandyWandy article said:

“Cold and flu [occur] as a result of exposure to extreme cold things.”

That needs correcting.

Cold and flu are caused by viruses, not simply because someone went outside in cold weather or drank something cold.

Respiratory infections can become more common during colder seasons for several reasons, but cold temperatures themselves are not the infectious agent.

Therefore, avoiding cold weather cannot guarantee that you will avoid a sore throat.

Can Hot Food or Drinks Cause Throat Pain?

Extremely hot food or drinks can injure tissues in the mouth and throat.

But that is different from an infectious sore throat.

You do not need to avoid ordinary warm drinks.

In fact, many people find warm fluids soothing when their throat is irritated.

Just allow very hot food and drinks to cool sufficiently before consuming them.

How Long Does a Sore Throat Last?

Most uncomplicated acute sore throats improve within approximately one week.

NICE says symptoms can last for around a week and that most people recover during this period without antibiotics, whether the cause is viral or bacterial. Nice

If your symptoms are not improving after a week, recur frequently or are getting significantly worse, seek appropriate medical advice.

How Can You Treat a Sore Throat at Home?

Several simple measures may make you more comfortable while your body recovers.

Drink enough fluids

Staying adequately hydrated is important.

Drink water regularly and choose temperatures that feel comfortable on your throat.

NICE specifically recommends adequate fluid intake as part of self-care for acute sore throat. Nice

Gargle with warm salty water

Adults may find gargling warm salty water soothing.

NHS instructions suggest dissolving approximately half a teaspoon of salt in a glass of warm water, gargling and then spitting the solution out rather than swallowing it.

Children should not use this method. nhs.uk

Eat cool or soft foods

Cool or soft foods may be more comfortable if swallowing is painful.

Choose whatever healthy foods you can comfortably tolerate while you recover.

Rest

Give yourself time to recover, particularly if the sore throat accompanies another infection.

Avoid smoking

Smoking and smoky environments can further irritate your throat.

Avoid them while recovering—and stopping smoking altogether provides substantial long-term health benefits.

What Can You Take for Sore-Throat Pain?

For people who can safely take them, paracetamol or ibuprofen may help relieve pain or fever.

NICE recommends considering paracetamol, or ibuprofen if preferred and suitable. Nice

Some adults may also choose medicated lozenges containing a local anaesthetic, antiseptic or anti-inflammatory medicine, although NICE says these may reduce pain by only a small amount. Nice

Medicines are not suitable for everybody.

Always follow the product instructions, and speak to a pharmacist or healthcare professional if you are unsure whether a medicine is appropriate for you.

Do You Need Antibiotics for a Sore Throat?

Usually, no.

This is an important correction to many misconceptions surrounding sore throats.

The NHS says antibiotics are not normally needed because they generally will not relieve symptoms or speed recovery for most sore throats. They may be prescribed when a healthcare professional determines that a bacterial infection is sufficiently likely or that there are other clinical reasons for treatment. nhs.uk

NICE similarly recommends against antibiotics for people who are unlikely to benefit from them. Nice

Even among some people who may be more likely to have a bacterial infection, antibiotics make only a relatively small difference to average symptom duration. Nice

Never use leftover antibiotics or somebody else's prescription.

Does Vitamin C Cure a Sore Throat?

The old article stated that taking vitamin C could help “solve” sore-throat problems.

That is too strong.

Vitamin C is an essential nutrient and should form part of a nutritionally adequate diet.

However, vitamin C should not be presented as a cure for an existing sore throat.

Fruit and vegetables containing vitamin C can certainly remain part of your normal balanced diet while you are unwell.

But they do not replace appropriate medical treatment when treatment is necessary.

Can Sore Throats Be Prevented?

It is impossible to prevent every sore throat, but sensible hygiene and lifestyle measures can reduce exposure to some infections and irritants.

Good habits include:

washing your hands regularly,
avoiding sharing drinking glasses or eating utensils when someone is ill,
covering coughs and sneezes,
avoiding smoking and second-hand smoke,
cleaning frequently touched surfaces when appropriate, and
following recommended vaccinations for infections for which vaccines are available.

Avoiding “extreme cold” is not a reliable infection-prevention strategy.

When Should You Contact a Pharmacist?

In England, a pharmacist can assess many cases of sore throat and advise on symptom relief.

Depending on the circumstances, pharmacists may also be able to provide treatment when they determine it is clinically appropriate.

This can be a useful first step for an uncomplicated sore throat. nhs.uk

When Should You See a GP?

Seek medical advice if:

the sore throat has not improved after approximately one week,
you frequently develop sore throats,
you have a persistent lump in your mouth or neck, or
you have a mouth ulcer lasting more than three weeks. nhs.uk

You should also seek advice sooner if symptoms are rapidly worsening or you are concerned about your condition.

When Is More Urgent Medical Advice Needed?

According to current NHS guidance, you should seek urgent medical advice if a sore throat is accompanied by circumstances such as:

a very high temperature or feeling very hot, cold or shivery,
signs of dehydration, such as urinating less than usual or producing dark, strong-smelling urine, or
a weakened immune system, for example because of certain illnesses or treatments. nhs.uk

In the UK, NHS 111 can provide urgent advice when appropriate.

When Is a Sore Throat an Emergency?

Some symptoms require immediate medical attention.

Call 999 or go to A&E in the UK if you or someone else with a sore throat:

has difficulty breathing,
cannot swallow,
is drooling because they cannot swallow,
makes a high-pitched sound while breathing (stridor), or
has severe symptoms that are getting worse quickly. nhs.uk

These symptoms should not be managed with home remedies while waiting to see whether they improve.

What About Children?

Children commonly experience sore throats, but their assessment can differ from that of adults.

The NHS advises that children under five who need help for a sore throat should be assessed through an appropriate healthcare service, while pharmacists can help with sore throats in children aged five and over in England. nhs.uk

A child who has difficulty breathing or swallowing, is drooling because they cannot swallow, develops stridor or becomes severely unwell requires emergency assessment.

The Bottom Line

Most sore throats are not serious and improve within about a week.

Many are caused by viral infections, which means antibiotics are usually unnecessary.

For an uncomplicated sore throat, rest, adequate fluids, suitable pain relief and simple soothing measures can help manage symptoms while you recover.

But symptoms such as difficulty breathing, inability to swallow, drooling, stridor or rapidly worsening severe illness require immediate medical attention.

Medical Disclaimer

This article provides general health information and is not intended to diagnose or treat an individual medical condition. Symptoms can have different causes, and treatment depends on individual circumstances. Speak to a pharmacist, GP or other qualified healthcare professional if you are concerned about your symptoms. Seek emergency medical assistance for severe breathing or swallowing difficulties or other emergency symptoms.

Ebola Disease: Symptoms, Transmission, Treatment and Prevention

Ebola disease is a rare but serious infectious illness caused by a group of viruses known as orthoebolaviruses.

Although Ebola has caused major outbreaks and can be f
atal, our understanding of the disease has advanced considerably. Vaccines and specific treatments are now available for Ebola virus disease caused by Ebola virus, while supportive medical care remains important for people affected by other types of Ebola disease. World Health Organization

Understanding how Ebola actually spreads is also important because misinformation can create unnecessary fear.

Ebola does not spread in the same way as common airborne respiratory infections. Transmission generally requires direct contact with infected blood or other body fluids, contaminated materials, or certain infected animals. CDC

What Is Ebola Disease?

Ebola disease is caused by viruses belonging to the orthoebolavirus group.

Different orthoebolaviruses can cause disease in humans. These include Ebola virus, Sudan virus, Taï Forest virus and Bundibugyo virus. Different viruses can have different available vaccines and treatments. CDC

Ebola was first recognised in 1976 during outbreaks in what are now South Sudan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. World Health Organization

The 2014–2016 West African outbreak later became the largest Ebola outbreak recorded, particularly affecting Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. WHO | Regional Office for Africa

How Serious Is Ebola?

Ebola can cause severe illness and death, but statements suggesting that almost everybody with Ebola dies are misleading.

WHO reports that case-fatality rates in previous outbreaks have ranged from approximately 25% to 90%, with an average of around 50%. World Health Organization

The outcome can depend on factors including the virus involved, the outbreak, the patient's condition and access to appropriate medical care.

Early supportive treatment can improve the chance of survival. World Health Organization

How Does Ebola Spread?

Ebola does not normally spread simply because you are standing near somebody.

A person can become infected through direct contact, through broken skin or mucous membranes, with the blood or other body fluids of somebody who is ill with or has died from Ebola disease.

Transmission can also occur through objects or surfaces contaminated with infected body fluids. World Health Organization

Examples of potentially infectious body fluids include blood, vomit and faeces.

People caring for someone with Ebola without appropriate infection-control precautions can therefore be at significant risk.

Can Ebola Spread Through the Air?

Ebola does not spread like influenza or COVID-19.

CDC states that you cannot contract Ebola simply from being near someone or passing them in a public place. CDC

This distinction is important because fear during an outbreak can lead to misinformation and unnecessary stigma.

Close or direct contact with infectious body fluids is the major concern.

Can Someone Spread Ebola Before Symptoms Begin?

According to WHO, people infected with Ebola cannot transmit the disease before they develop symptoms. World Health Organization

This is another important difference between Ebola and some other infectious diseases.

Once someone becomes ill, however, appropriate isolation, infection-control measures and medical assessment become extremely important.

Can Ebola Spread From Animals to Humans?

Yes.

Scientists believe fruit bats are involved in the ecology and transmission of orthoebolaviruses.

Human infection can occur through contact with the blood, secretions, organs or other bodily fluids of infected animals.

Animals implicated in transmission have included infected fruit bats and non-human primates. World Health Organization

Avoiding contact with sick or dead wild animals is therefore an important precaution in areas affected by Ebola outbreaks.

How Long Does It Take Ebola Symptoms to Appear?

The incubation period—the time between infection and the appearance of symptoms—can range from 2 to 21 days.

On average, symptoms commonly begin around 8–10 days after exposure. CDC

Someone who may have been exposed should follow instructions from the relevant public-health authorities regarding monitoring and medical assessment.

Early Symptoms of Ebola

Ebola can initially resemble several other infectious illnesses.

Early symptoms can include:

fever,
fatigue or weakness,
muscle and joint aches,
headache,
sore throat, and
loss of appetite.

These symptoms alone do not mean somebody has Ebola.

Malaria, typhoid fever and several other infections can produce similar symptoms, which is one reason laboratory testing and appropriate medical assessment are important. CDC

Later Symptoms

As the disease progresses, symptoms can include:

nausea,
vomiting,
diarrhoea,
abdominal pain,
rash,
confusion, and
in some patients, unexplained bleeding.

One misconception about Ebola is that everybody with the disease develops severe bleeding.

That is not the case. CDC and WHO both note that bleeding can occur, particularly later in the disease, but it is not present in every patient. CDC

How Is Ebola Diagnosed?

Symptoms alone cannot reliably diagnose Ebola.

Healthcare professionals use laboratory testing to confirm infection. WHO identifies methods including reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) testing and other specialised laboratory techniques. World Health Organization

Because patient samples can present a serious biological hazard, testing requires appropriate infection-control and laboratory procedures.

A person should never attempt to diagnose Ebola themselves based solely on symptoms found online.

Is There Treatment for Ebola?

Yes—but treatment depends partly on the particular virus involved.

Early supportive care is extremely important. This can include fluids and electrolytes, treatment of symptoms and management of complications or other infections. World Health Organization

For Ebola virus disease caused by Ebola virus, WHO recommends specific monoclonal-antibody treatments. World Health Organization

However, approved specific treatments are not available for every type of orthoebolavirus disease.

This is why the old statement that “there is no treatment for Ebola” should no longer be repeated.

Is There an Ebola Vaccine?

Yes, vaccines exist against Ebola virus disease caused by Ebola virus.

WHO currently identifies the Ervebo vaccine as licensed and WHO-prequalified for prevention of Ebola virus disease caused by Ebola virus. It is used particularly as part of outbreak responses. World Health Organization

However, one Ebola vaccine should not be assumed to protect against every orthoebolavirus.

For example, WHO states that there are currently no licensed vaccines for several other Ebola diseases, although vaccine candidates are being developed. World Health Organization

How Can Ebola Transmission Be Prevented?

Ebola prevention during an outbreak requires coordinated public-health measures rather than relying on a single precaution.

WHO identifies important measures including:

appropriate clinical care,
surveillance,
contact tracing,
laboratory services,
infection prevention and control,
safe and dignified burial practices,
vaccination when appropriate, and
community engagement. World Health Organization

Individuals in affected areas should follow instructions issued by recognised health authorities.

People should avoid direct contact with the blood and body fluids of somebody who is sick with suspected or confirmed Ebola unless appropriately trained and equipped to provide care.

Why Safe Burial Practices Matter

A person who has died from Ebola can remain infectious.

Traditional funeral practices involving washing, touching or kissing the body have contributed to transmission during previous outbreaks. World Health Organization

Safe and dignified burial procedures carried out by trained teams are therefore an important part of outbreak control.

This does not mean communities' cultural and religious practices should simply be ignored. WHO emphasises community engagement as an important component of successful outbreak control. World Health Organization

What Should You Do After Possible Exposure?

Having fever or diarrhoea by itself does not mean you have Ebola.

Risk depends heavily on whether there has been a relevant exposure, particularly contact with an infected person's body fluids or another recognised source of infection.

If you believe you have been exposed during an Ebola outbreak, follow instructions from local public-health authorities.

CDC advises people who believe they were exposed and subsequently develop symptoms to contact appropriate healthcare or public-health services immediately. CDC

Where possible, contact the healthcare service before arriving so appropriate infection-control arrangements can be made.

Ebola: The Key Facts to Remember

Ebola is a serious disease, but accurate information helps prevent unnecessary fear.

Remember:

Ebola does not spread like flu or COVID-19.
People do not transmit Ebola before symptoms develop.
Direct contact with infectious body fluids is an important route of transmission.
Symptoms may appear 2–21 days after exposure.
Bleeding does not occur in every Ebola patient.
Early medical care can improve survival.
Specific treatments and vaccines now exist for Ebola virus disease caused by Ebola virus, although they are not available for every type of Ebola disease.
Outbreak control requires professional healthcare and coordinated public-health measures. World Health Organization

Health information about Ebola can change during an outbreak, so current advice from WHO, national public-health authorities and other recognised health agencies should take priority over older information found online.

Medical Disclaimer

This article provides general educational information and is not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. Anyone who believes they may have been exposed to Ebola should follow current advice from the relevant public-health authority and seek appropriate medical assistance.